2011年5月28日土曜日
気仙沼市津波 Footage of the tsunami that hit Kesennuma City in Japan
MrDoricar さんが 2011/03/27 にアップロード
the tsunami that hit Kesennuma City Japan
2010年8月2日月曜日
グローバル実業家集団一族の根底にある想念は一体どのような歴史的な背景から生じてきているのだろうか？？？
世界の政治・経済・情報・人脈・資本・産業・報道機関等を支配・管理するほどの国境なき活動で、世界に大きな影響を誇示するグローバル実業家集団一族の根底にある想念は一体どのような歴史的な背景から生じてきているのだろうか？？？？？
この設問に対しての解答は、簡単に求められるわけではない。
古代ユダヤ王国の歴史が、神話的な伝説として、世界の各地に広がって生きてきた多くのユダヤ民族によって、絶えることがなく、現代まで、引き継がれ語り続けられてきている。
ユダヤ民族の世界各地への流浪の始まりが、旧約聖書の中には、語られている。
その中には、人類世界の未来を預言するような記述も、ユダヤ民族の聖なる言葉の書として、扱われている。
古代エジプトの王朝の中で、多くのユダヤ民族が奴隷として使役されていた人間達の社会史的な歴史上の伝説なのである。
これらの物語の根底にあるのは、民族として、虐げられ奈落のような生活状態を生き残るべき術として、そのような宿命的な逆境状態から、どのように、切り抜けて行ったのであるのかについての先祖達が経験したことを生存の教訓として、たどることであるように思える。
耐え凌ぐことを遥かに超えた人々の奴隷状態の抑圧された困窮な生活状況から、如何にして、凌ぎ、絶望の状況の中で、忍耐・忍従の体験をしながら、生き伸び、生き残ることに対して、暗闇の中で、明かりを灯すように、切実に、生きることに対して、希望を託したことであるのか。
これらについて、我々の人類の先達たちの人々は、その時代の絶大な支配権力者に反抗・抵抗しながら、どのような思いで、熟考し、失敗を重ねながらも、計画を実行したのかについてを考察することも、意義深いことである。
世界の人類の４大分明の発祥地の一つである古代エジプトにおいて、旧約聖書の中で語られているユダヤ民族の言い伝えが、現代に生きるユダヤ人においても、旧約聖書を通して、先祖達が経験した聖なる言い伝えとしての物語を自らの生き方としての教訓・訓示・啓示として、人生の歩み方や思考・想念・判断に大きな影響を与えているのであろう。
この民族の歴史物語をユダヤ民族は大事にして、世界各地に、流浪しながらも、生活の基本にして、生存してきたのであろう。
民族の起源の物語りを聖なる書物として後世に伝え、子々孫々へ、引き継がれ、大事にして継続してきており、それであるからこそ、世界各地に流浪した民族の拠り所として、その訓話的な想念の文化を共有・共感することが可能となっており、思索想念的な民族としての共同協力・団結心等が生み出されてくるのであろう。
エジプトの王朝の中で、多くのユダヤ民族が奴隷として蔑まれ使役されていたのである。
色々なユダヤ民族の指導者の伝説・説話歴史的な物語のように、語り続けられて現在の世界に、伝えられて残されてきたものが、聖書の中に残され記されてきているのである。
聖書の物語の真偽は別として、その聖書の物語は、今後とも、人類の歴史の中で、新らしいページが付け加えられて、後世に伝えられていくことであろう。
そのユダヤ民族の歴史の流れ中で、世界的な活動・支配を成し遂げてきたユダヤ民族の旗頭の一員であるロックフェラー一族は、今後の世界の大きな時代変遷の中において、統括的な権力支配者として、世界に君臨し、存在・存続・継続し、続けていくことは、困難なことであろう。
例えるならば、人類の歴史の変遷における物理的なエントロピー的な拡散の原則を押しのけて、集中的な集積という過程に進むということは、そこに莫大なエネルギーを必要とされるがゆえにおいて、また物理の経時の過程が、拡散の過程に進むという物理熱力学の法則が存在しているがゆえにあるのである。
現世に言い伝えられて残されてきた聖書の記述やそのの解釈も、拡散の過程による経年の変化で、様々に変化してきているのである。
例えとして、人類の知恵と力を集結させることが可能であっても、また、その管理・運営過程のすべてについて、そのような機構を維持できるような権力を構築し、維持・管理を企てたとしても、総合統括司令塔のような統括機能を維持して、その管理機構を経年的に変化させずに運営させていくことの果てしのない無限の工程を実現させていくことは、この現実の人類社会の中に存在する多様性のある情念の世界をも含めて管理することの実現性およびその可能性は殆どないことになるであろう。
人類の生存の存在のその根底には、遺伝子に組み込まれた生物の生命の本源の中に情念を所有している。 各自各位が、独立して、存在して、固有に内包されているものである。
それこそ、天地を司る神の持つ力によって可能であったとしても、多様性のある世界の民族・民衆の意思を分断ではなく、統合・統一することは、非常に困難な過程を進む事を意味しており、其の実現の可能性は殆どないことであろう。
楽観的な理想論では、超えることのできない生物種の生存の宿命がこの先に大きく待ち構えていることが判明することになるであろう。
近未来の今後において、中国においての，秦の始皇帝の末裔である中国民族のある種の帝国主義国家の台頭に対して、、ユダヤ民族と呼ばれている人びとは、どのように、このユダヤ的な民族思想を構築して、どのような手段で対抗していくことになるのであろうか？
無神論を基本として成立している中国共産主義思想と有神論で構成された自由主義リベラルの西洋思想の並存する現代社会の未来はどのような展開がなされることになるのであろうか。
人類の民族の興亡の歴史においては、絶え間ない生存競争・闘争と平和・協調の間の大きな揺れ動きの変動の中で、浮き沈みを繰り返し経ながら変遷していくことになるのでであろうか。
日本を始め、世界の諸国は、その帝国主義的な覇権的な競争と協調の国際関係の谷間に、存在しているのである。
その人類の可能性を追求する歴史の過程で、見んっ族が流浪しなければならない状況を防ぐために、律法に規範を置く国家というものを構築しながら、また生活の規範・道徳としての神と言う概念が私達の先祖達の知恵の中で、創られ生まれ、育てられてきたのであろうか。
人類の未来において、人類を統括支配する神は存在するのか、あるいは存在しないのかの神学論や支配権力者の論理・思想は、これからも探求されつづけられていくことになるであろう。
希望は逆境・絶望の状況を経験したことのあるものにだけ、その輝くような存在の価値があるようである。 そこにこそ、叱咤激励の自己への啓発と不断の努力が生みだされてくるのである。
社会で、成功する人は、このような逆境の状態を乗り越えてきているのである。
安穏で、安逸な生活の行き着くところは、やがては、絶望が待ち構えているのである。
民族、国家の興亡においても、このような原理・原則が厳然と存在しているのである。
未来の社会においても、そこに、永遠的に確実に継続されて存在するであろうものは、【未来への希望】と【対立関係ではない信頼関係によって形成され共有された共同・協同】といわれる人類社会に共通に存在している概念的な想念・イデアなのである。
この設問に対しての解答は、簡単に求められるわけではない。
古代ユダヤ王国の歴史が、神話的な伝説として、世界の各地に広がって生きてきた多くのユダヤ民族によって、絶えることがなく、現代まで、引き継がれ語り続けられてきている。
ユダヤ民族の世界各地への流浪の始まりが、旧約聖書の中には、語られている。
その中には、人類世界の未来を預言するような記述も、ユダヤ民族の聖なる言葉の書として、扱われている。
古代エジプトの王朝の中で、多くのユダヤ民族が奴隷として使役されていた人間達の社会史的な歴史上の伝説なのである。
これらの物語の根底にあるのは、民族として、虐げられ奈落のような生活状態を生き残るべき術として、そのような宿命的な逆境状態から、どのように、切り抜けて行ったのであるのかについての先祖達が経験したことを生存の教訓として、たどることであるように思える。
耐え凌ぐことを遥かに超えた人々の奴隷状態の抑圧された困窮な生活状況から、如何にして、凌ぎ、絶望の状況の中で、忍耐・忍従の体験をしながら、生き伸び、生き残ることに対して、暗闇の中で、明かりを灯すように、切実に、生きることに対して、希望を託したことであるのか。
これらについて、我々の人類の先達たちの人々は、その時代の絶大な支配権力者に反抗・抵抗しながら、どのような思いで、熟考し、失敗を重ねながらも、計画を実行したのかについてを考察することも、意義深いことである。
世界の人類の４大分明の発祥地の一つである古代エジプトにおいて、旧約聖書の中で語られているユダヤ民族の言い伝えが、現代に生きるユダヤ人においても、旧約聖書を通して、先祖達が経験した聖なる言い伝えとしての物語を自らの生き方としての教訓・訓示・啓示として、人生の歩み方や思考・想念・判断に大きな影響を与えているのであろう。
この民族の歴史物語をユダヤ民族は大事にして、世界各地に、流浪しながらも、生活の基本にして、生存してきたのであろう。
民族の起源の物語りを聖なる書物として後世に伝え、子々孫々へ、引き継がれ、大事にして継続してきており、それであるからこそ、世界各地に流浪した民族の拠り所として、その訓話的な想念の文化を共有・共感することが可能となっており、思索想念的な民族としての共同協力・団結心等が生み出されてくるのであろう。
エジプトの王朝の中で、多くのユダヤ民族が奴隷として蔑まれ使役されていたのである。
色々なユダヤ民族の指導者の伝説・説話歴史的な物語のように、語り続けられて現在の世界に、伝えられて残されてきたものが、聖書の中に残され記されてきているのである。
聖書の物語の真偽は別として、その聖書の物語は、今後とも、人類の歴史の中で、新らしいページが付け加えられて、後世に伝えられていくことであろう。
そのユダヤ民族の歴史の流れ中で、世界的な活動・支配を成し遂げてきたユダヤ民族の旗頭の一員であるロックフェラー一族は、今後の世界の大きな時代変遷の中において、統括的な権力支配者として、世界に君臨し、存在・存続・継続し、続けていくことは、困難なことであろう。
例えるならば、人類の歴史の変遷における物理的なエントロピー的な拡散の原則を押しのけて、集中的な集積という過程に進むということは、そこに莫大なエネルギーを必要とされるがゆえにおいて、また物理の経時の過程が、拡散の過程に進むという物理熱力学の法則が存在しているがゆえにあるのである。
現世に言い伝えられて残されてきた聖書の記述やそのの解釈も、拡散の過程による経年の変化で、様々に変化してきているのである。
例えとして、人類の知恵と力を集結させることが可能であっても、また、その管理・運営過程のすべてについて、そのような機構を維持できるような権力を構築し、維持・管理を企てたとしても、総合統括司令塔のような統括機能を維持して、その管理機構を経年的に変化させずに運営させていくことの果てしのない無限の工程を実現させていくことは、この現実の人類社会の中に存在する多様性のある情念の世界をも含めて管理することの実現性およびその可能性は殆どないことになるであろう。
人類の生存の存在のその根底には、遺伝子に組み込まれた生物の生命の本源の中に情念を所有している。 各自各位が、独立して、存在して、固有に内包されているものである。
それこそ、天地を司る神の持つ力によって可能であったとしても、多様性のある世界の民族・民衆の意思を分断ではなく、統合・統一することは、非常に困難な過程を進む事を意味しており、其の実現の可能性は殆どないことであろう。
楽観的な理想論では、超えることのできない生物種の生存の宿命がこの先に大きく待ち構えていることが判明することになるであろう。
近未来の今後において、中国においての，秦の始皇帝の末裔である中国民族のある種の帝国主義国家の台頭に対して、、ユダヤ民族と呼ばれている人びとは、どのように、このユダヤ的な民族思想を構築して、どのような手段で対抗していくことになるのであろうか？
無神論を基本として成立している中国共産主義思想と有神論で構成された自由主義リベラルの西洋思想の並存する現代社会の未来はどのような展開がなされることになるのであろうか。
人類の民族の興亡の歴史においては、絶え間ない生存競争・闘争と平和・協調の間の大きな揺れ動きの変動の中で、浮き沈みを繰り返し経ながら変遷していくことになるのでであろうか。
日本を始め、世界の諸国は、その帝国主義的な覇権的な競争と協調の国際関係の谷間に、存在しているのである。
その人類の可能性を追求する歴史の過程で、見んっ族が流浪しなければならない状況を防ぐために、律法に規範を置く国家というものを構築しながら、また生活の規範・道徳としての神と言う概念が私達の先祖達の知恵の中で、創られ生まれ、育てられてきたのであろうか。
人類の未来において、人類を統括支配する神は存在するのか、あるいは存在しないのかの神学論や支配権力者の論理・思想は、これからも探求されつづけられていくことになるであろう。
希望は逆境・絶望の状況を経験したことのあるものにだけ、その輝くような存在の価値があるようである。 そこにこそ、叱咤激励の自己への啓発と不断の努力が生みだされてくるのである。
社会で、成功する人は、このような逆境の状態を乗り越えてきているのである。
安穏で、安逸な生活の行き着くところは、やがては、絶望が待ち構えているのである。
民族、国家の興亡においても、このような原理・原則が厳然と存在しているのである。
未来の社会においても、そこに、永遠的に確実に継続されて存在するであろうものは、【未来への希望】と【対立関係ではない信頼関係によって形成され共有された共同・協同】といわれる人類社会に共通に存在している概念的な想念・イデアなのである。
2010年8月1日日曜日
What’s the Vision for the State?
【出展リンク】：
http://www.hks.harvard.edu/news-events/news/commentary/what-vision-for-the-state
http://www.hks.harvard.edu/news-events/news/commentary/what-vision-for-the-state
What’s the Vision for the State?
June 17, 2010
by Edward Glaeser
Boston Globe
PEOPLE GET more excited about national elections than about state and local races, which is unfortunate since lower levels of governments greatly impact most of our lives. State and local governments oversee the schools that teach our children, the police that protect our streets, and the roads and rails on which we commute. The candidates in the governor’s race need to engage in a passionate policy debate that brings out the economics behind political disagreements.
Does job growth come from government initiative or by eliminating the barriers to entrepreneurship? Democratic Governor Deval Patrick is an economic activist who favors targeted public investments, like the billion dollars committed to life sciences in 2008. Economists have long been skeptical about politicians playing venture capitalist. The Japanese tried to implement a national policy of supporting key sectors for decades and they generally backed losers. Why would a US state government be able to do better than the best minds of Japan?
Republican Charles Baker and Independent Tim Cahill both seem to believe that government can’t micro-manage the unpredictable genius of entrepreneurial innovation, and that the best economic policy is, in Cahill’s words, to “lower taxes and create a business-friendly state.’’ That’s a legitimate view, but for this approach to work, the state needs to find a free lunch by cutting costs without cutting valuable services.
One of Baker’s big cost-saving ideas is to cap government pensions at $90,000 a year. Of course, pension reform is needed — especially replacing defined benefit plans with more transparent and sustainable defined contribution plans similar to 401(k)s — but the great Boston Firefighters’ fight reminds us how difficult it is to stop pay increases, let alone to effectively reduce compensation.
Patrick also supports pension reform, so if Baker wants to differentiate himself as a compensation cutter, then he must explain why police officers and teachers deserve less money, why the savings will more than offset any associated reduction in services, and where he will get the muscle to work this political sea change. Free lunches are rare.
The candidates’ differences appear most starkly in their approaches to health care. Patrick favors capping payments to providers and has filed legislation in which “any contract under which provider payments increase by an amount in excess of the applicable Consumer Price Index for Medical Care Services shall be presumptively disapproved.’’
Baker favors softer medicine to make health care more competitive, like more transparency and eliminating state mandated benefits. Will Patrick’s price caps lead to insolvent hospitals and deterioration of heath care? Will Baker’s proposals do anything significant? Cahill displays the most ire toward the current system, and he seems open to everything— more competition, capping fees, and rethinking the current fee-for-service model altogether — but his website is short on details.
An electoral debate over education should bring out the conflict between a government-centered view that emphasizes spending and smaller class sizes, and a more competitive model that promotes school choice and accountability. Baker supports increasing charter, magnet, and alternative schools, but that doesn’t set him apart from Patrick. The governor once resisted charters but has signed legislation doubling the number of these schools. If Baker wants to be a choice, not an echo, he needs to be more radical in his support of parental choice, data systems that tie promotion to performance, and linking state aid to school district reform.
Housing policy provides another opportunity to differentiate between state-led solutions and a market approach. A morass of local land use regulations limits new construction in Massachusetts, which makes our state unaffordable and unattractive to new businesses. The statist approach is to build public projects; the competitive approach is to push against the restrictions on building. Patrick again occupies a middle position, favoring public investment in affordable housing and defending the few restraints against local NIMBYism that do exist, like Chapter 40B. But other than opposing 40B’s repeal, housing doesn’t seem to be on either Baker’s or Cahill’s agenda.
Neither challenger will win the governorship relying on a reputation for managerial competence. This election should be a debate over issues and for that to happen every candidate must offer different and compelling visions of state government.
Does job growth come from government initiative or by eliminating the barriers to entrepreneurship? Democratic Governor Deval Patrick is an economic activist who favors targeted public investments, like the billion dollars committed to life sciences in 2008. Economists have long been skeptical about politicians playing venture capitalist. The Japanese tried to implement a national policy of supporting key sectors for decades and they generally backed losers. Why would a US state government be able to do better than the best minds of Japan?
Republican Charles Baker and Independent Tim Cahill both seem to believe that government can’t micro-manage the unpredictable genius of entrepreneurial innovation, and that the best economic policy is, in Cahill’s words, to “lower taxes and create a business-friendly state.’’ That’s a legitimate view, but for this approach to work, the state needs to find a free lunch by cutting costs without cutting valuable services.
One of Baker’s big cost-saving ideas is to cap government pensions at $90,000 a year. Of course, pension reform is needed — especially replacing defined benefit plans with more transparent and sustainable defined contribution plans similar to 401(k)s — but the great Boston Firefighters’ fight reminds us how difficult it is to stop pay increases, let alone to effectively reduce compensation.
Patrick also supports pension reform, so if Baker wants to differentiate himself as a compensation cutter, then he must explain why police officers and teachers deserve less money, why the savings will more than offset any associated reduction in services, and where he will get the muscle to work this political sea change. Free lunches are rare.
The candidates’ differences appear most starkly in their approaches to health care. Patrick favors capping payments to providers and has filed legislation in which “any contract under which provider payments increase by an amount in excess of the applicable Consumer Price Index for Medical Care Services shall be presumptively disapproved.’’
Baker favors softer medicine to make health care more competitive, like more transparency and eliminating state mandated benefits. Will Patrick’s price caps lead to insolvent hospitals and deterioration of heath care? Will Baker’s proposals do anything significant? Cahill displays the most ire toward the current system, and he seems open to everything— more competition, capping fees, and rethinking the current fee-for-service model altogether — but his website is short on details.
An electoral debate over education should bring out the conflict between a government-centered view that emphasizes spending and smaller class sizes, and a more competitive model that promotes school choice and accountability. Baker supports increasing charter, magnet, and alternative schools, but that doesn’t set him apart from Patrick. The governor once resisted charters but has signed legislation doubling the number of these schools. If Baker wants to be a choice, not an echo, he needs to be more radical in his support of parental choice, data systems that tie promotion to performance, and linking state aid to school district reform.
Housing policy provides another opportunity to differentiate between state-led solutions and a market approach. A morass of local land use regulations limits new construction in Massachusetts, which makes our state unaffordable and unattractive to new businesses. The statist approach is to build public projects; the competitive approach is to push against the restrictions on building. Patrick again occupies a middle position, favoring public investment in affordable housing and defending the few restraints against local NIMBYism that do exist, like Chapter 40B. But other than opposing 40B’s repeal, housing doesn’t seem to be on either Baker’s or Cahill’s agenda.
Neither challenger will win the governorship relying on a reputation for managerial competence. This election should be a debate over issues and for that to happen every candidate must offer different and compelling visions of state government.
Edward Glaeser is director of the Rappaport Institute for Greater Boston and the Taubman Center for State and Local Government. The views expressed in this are his own.
Copyright © 2009 The President and Fellows of Harvard College
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2010年7月31日土曜日
Communication ： Wikipedia
Communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Communication is a process of transferring informationfrom one entity to another. Communication processes are sign-mediated interactions between at least two agents which share a repertoire of signs and semiotic rules. Communication is commonly defined as "the imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs"[by whom?].
Communication is a process whereby information is enclosed in a package and is channeled and imparted by a sender to a receiver via some medium. The receiver then decodes the message and gives the sender a feedback. All forms of communication require a sender, a message, and an intended recipient, however the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication in order for the act of communication to occur. Communication requires that all parties have an area of communicative commonality. There are auditory means, such as speech, song, and tone of voice, and there are nonverbal means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, through media, i.e., pictures, graphics and sound, and writing.
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[edit]Information communication revolutions
Over time, technology has progressed and has created new forms of and ideas about communication. The newer advances include media and communications psychology. Media psychology is an emerging field of study. These technological advances revolutionized the processes of communication. Researchers have divided how communication was transformed into three revolutionary stages:
In the 1st Information Communication Revolution, the first written communication began, with pictographs. These writings were made on stone, which were too heavy to transfer. During this era, written communication was not mobile, but nonetheless existed.
In the 2nd Information Communication Revolution, writing began to appear on paper, papyrus, clay, wax, etc. Common alphabets were introduced, allowing the uniformity of language across large distances. Much later the Gutenberg printing-press was invented. Gutenberg created this printing-press after a long period of time in the 15th century.
In the 3rd Information Communication Revolution, information can now be transferred via controlled waves and electronic signals.
Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in an attempt to create shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills in interpersonal and interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and evaluating. It is through communication that collaboration andcooperation occur.[1]
There are also many common barriers to successful communication, two of which are message overload (when a person receives too many messages at the same time), and message complexity.[2] Communication is a continuous process. The psychology of media communications is an emerging area of increasing attention and study.
[edit]Human communication
Human spoken and written languages can be described as asystem of symbols (sometimes known as lexemes) and thegrammars (rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word "language" is also used to refer to common properties of languages. Language learning is normal in human childhood. Most human languages use patterns of sound orgesture for symbols which enable communication with others around them. There are thousands of human languages, and these seem to share certain properties, even though many shared properties have exceptions.
There is no defined line between a language and a dialect, but the linguist Max Weinreich is credited as saying that "a language is a dialect with an army and a navy". Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages.
Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology and new technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound increasingly dominate modern communication.
[edit]Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated through gesture, body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or evenarchitecture, or symbols and infographics, as well as through an aggregate of the above, such as behavioral communication. Nonverbal communication plays a key role in every person's day to day life, from employment to romantic engagements.
Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known asparalanguage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm,intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the use of emoticons. A portmanteau of the English words emotion (or emote) and icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of symbols, such as :), used to convey emotional content in written or message form.
Other communication channels such as telegraphy fit into this category, whereby signals travel from person to person by an alternative means. These signals can in themselves be representative of words, objects or merely be state projections. Trials have shown that humans can communicate directly in this way[3] without body language, voice tonality or words.
 | This section needs additionalcitations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.(May 2010) |
Categories and Features
G. W. Porter divides non-verbal communication into four broad categories:
- Physical. This is the personal type of communication. It includes facial expressions, tone of voice, sense of touch, sense of smell, and body motions.
- Aesthetic. This is the type of communication that takes place through creative expressions: playing instrumental music, dancing, painting and sculpturing.
- Signs. This is the mechanical type of communication, which includes the use of signal flags, the 21-gun salute, horns, and sirens.
- Symbolic. This is the type of communication that makes use of religious, status, or ego-building symbols.
Static Features
- Distance. The distance one stands from another frequently conveys a non-verbal message. In some cultures it is a sign of attraction, while in others it may reflect status or the intensity of the exchange.
- Orientation. People may present themselves in various ways: face-to-face, side-to-side, or even back-to-back. For example, cooperating people are likely to sit side-by-side while competitors frequently face one another.
- Posture. Obviously one can be lying down, seated, or standing. These are not the elements of posture that convey messages. Are we slouched or erect ? Are our legs crossed or our arms folded ? Such postures convey a degree of formality and the degree of relaxation in the communication exchange.
- Physical Contact. Shaking hands, touching, holding, embracing, pushing, or patting on the back all convey messages. They reflect an element of intimacy or a feeling of (or lack of) attraction.
Dynamic Features
- Facial Expressions. A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all convey information. Facial expressions continually change during interaction and are monitored constantly by the recipient. There is evidence that the meaning of these expressions may be similar across cultures.
- Gestures. One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is a hand movement. Most people use hand movements regularly when talking. While some gestures (e.g., a clenched fist) have universal meanings, most of the others are individually learned andidiosyncratic.
- Looking. A major feature of social communication is eye contact. It can convey emotion, signal when to talk or finish, or aversion. The frequency of contact may suggest either interest or boredom.
[edit]Visual communication
Visual communication is communication through visual aid. It is the conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked upon. Primarily associated with two dimensional images, it includes: signs, typography, drawing,graphic design, illustration, colour and electronic resources. It solely relies on vision. It is form of communication with visual effect. It explores the idea that a visual message with text has a greater power to inform, educate or persuade a person. It is communication by presenting information through visual form.
The evaluation of a good visual design is based on measuring comprehension by the audience, not on aesthetic or artistic preference. There are no universally agreed-upon principles of beauty and ugliness. There exists a variety of ways to present information visually, like gestures, body languages, video and TV. Here, focus is on the presentation of text, pictures, diagrams, photos, et cetera, integrated on a computer display. The term visual presentation is used to refer to the actual presentation of information. Recent research in the field has focused on web design and graphically oriented usability. Graphic designers use methods of visual communication in their professional practice.
[edit]Understanding the Field of Communication
The field of communication is typically broken into three distinct camps: human communication, mass communications, and communication disorders [4]
Human Communication or Communication Studies is the study of how individuals communicate. Some examples of the distinct areas that human communication scholars study are:
- Interpersonal Communication
- Organizational Communication
- Oral Communication
- Small Group Communication
- Intercultural Communication
- Nonviolent Communication
- Conflict
- Rhetoric
- Public Speaking
- Media and Communications Psychology
Examples of Mass Communications include:
- Mass communication
- Graphic communication
- Science communication
- Strategic Communication
- Superluminal communication
- Technical communication
- Public relations
- Broadcast Media
- Journalism
- Media and Communications Psychology
Examples of Communication Disorders include:
[edit]Oral communication
Oral communication is a process whereby information is transferred from a sender to receiver; in general communication is usually transfered by both verbal means and visual aid throughout the process.. The receiver could be an individual person, a group of persons or even an audience. There are a few of oral communication types: discussion, speeches, presentations, etc. However, often when you communicate face to face the body language and your voice tonality has a bigger impact than the actual words that you are saying.
A widely cited and widely mis-interpreted figure, used to emphasize the importance of delivery, is that "communication is 55% body language, 38% tone of voice, 7% content of words", the so-called "7%-38%-55% rule".[5]This is not however what the cited research shows – rather, when conveying emotion, if body language, tone of voice, and words disagree, then body language and tone of voice will be believed more than words.[6][clarification needed] For example, a person saying "I'm delighted to meet you" while mumbling, hunched over, and looking away will be interpreted as insincere. (Further discussion at Albert Mehrabian: Three elements of communication.)
You can notice that the content or the word that you are using is not the determining part of a good communication. The “how you say it” has a major impact on the receiver. You have to capture the attention of the audience and connect with them. For example, two persons saying the same joke, one of them could make the audience die laughing related to his good body language and tone of voice. However, the second person that has the exact same words could make the audience stare at one another.[citation needed]
In an oral communication, it is possible to have visual aid helping you to provide more precise information. Often enough, we use a presentation program in presentations related to our speech to facilitate or enhance the communication process.
[edit]Communication modeling
The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories [7] The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoderto a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication simply views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:
- An information source, which produces a message.
- A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
- A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
- A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
- A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory.
- The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
- The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
- The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating
- It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
- No allowance for differing purposes.
- No allowance for differing interpretations.
- No allowance for unequal power relations.
- No allowance for situational contexts.
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication [8]. The Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through whichmedium), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schram (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message[9]. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messagesthat are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
- Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
- Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
- Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rules in some sense ignores autocommunication, includingintrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (2008) proposed a transactional model of communication [10]. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of "communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of coregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholarHarold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997). His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called 'Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and 'Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
The Krishi Vigyan Kendra Kannur under Kerala Agricultural University has pioneered a new branch of agricultural communication called Creative Extension. An outlook on International Communication a subject that I have been studying for my Mass Communication major in Graduate school. The purpose is to show an introduction of about International Communication and how it has shaped its way in today's society. International Communication is important and what things may have contributed to its importance.
As we have seen in many movies, documentaries, films, books, journals etc. Social Media has taken a different outlook on International Communication. In which it has shown and allowed communities all across the world to come and work together instantly. Places that are all over the world have come together some shape or form and begin to help and work together because of social media and its connection in International Communications. International Communication gives opportunities and challenges that create social media abroad. In my Mass Comm class I learned a Little bit about Cross cultural Communication in which it requires some type of knowledge of social media when effective. I also noticed that its geers and understanding of online and offline cultures. Communication has always been a broad area of study, and what I have noticed about communication it is expected or developed to provide some type of advice or wording to help people engage with each other in various parts of the world.
What I have found out this semester about International Communication is case studies. As we worked on in last class we studied cases and used the case study questions to navigate through the problem and topic to find solutions. Many case studies can build an inescapable argument from the articles I read through from class. I took a copy of all that were passed out to each group and I tried this step by step outline/checklist to assist me in forming more solutions to these problems and situations in the world all over the world. There are so many new ways of speaking, talking to others and mostly interacting that are not even discussed or made applicable to society to use and gain useful and powerful information. All are used to educate people and create powerful models new/old that can be used to help everyone from professionals to all the way to communicators as a whole. It is used to study and adapt a changeable environment for people living in all parts of the world.
A study of Globalization is a huge representation all over the world. If everyone just stays inside their own national borders or work abroad, its will not be crazy to rethink not just what we say as people but also how we say things and the channels we use to communicate is all important. especially now in today's society it all has to be channeled so way and not just through speaking with our mouth. We should all pay attention to our theme of social media and International Communication as we channel ourselves and not miss the real risk of becoming irrelevant to the people in the world.
[edit]Communication noise
In any communication model, noise is interference with the decoding of messages sent over a channel by an encoder. There are many examples of noise:
Environmental Noise: Noise that physically disrupts communication, such as standing next to loud speakers at a party, or the noise from a construction site next to a classroom making it difficult to hear the professor.
Physiological-Impairment Noise: Physical maladies that prevent effective communication, such as actual deafness or blindness preventing messages from being received as they were intended.
Semantic Noise: Different interpretations of the meanings of certain words. For example, the word "weed" can be interpreted as an undesirable plant in your yard, or as a euphemism for marijuana.
Syntactical Noise: Mistakes in grammar can disrupt communication, such as abrupt changes in verb tense during a sentence.
Organizational Noise: Poorly structured communication can prevent the receiver from accurate interpretation. For example, unclear and badly stated directions can make the receiver even more lost.
Cultural Noise: Stereotypical assumptions can cause misunderstandings, such as unintentionally offending Jews by wishing them a "Merry Christmas.”
Psychological Noise: Certain attitudes can also make communication difficult. For instance, great anger or sadness may cause someone to lose focus on the present moment. Disorders such as Autism may also severely hamper effective communication.[11]
[edit]Nonhuman communication
See also: Biocommunication (science) and Interspecies communication
Communication in many of its facets is not limited tohumans, or even to primates. Every information exchangebetween living organisms — i.e. transmission of signalsinvolving a living sender and receiver — can be considered a form of communication.[12] Thus, there is the broad field ofanimal communication, which encompasses most of the issues in ethology. Also very primitive animals such as corals are competent to communicate.[13] On a more basic level, there is cell signaling, cellular communication, and chemical communication between primitive organisms likebacteria,[14] and within the plant and fungal kingdoms. All of these communication processes are sign-mediated interactions with a great variety of distinct coordinations.
Animal communication is any behaviour on the part of one animal that has an effect on the current or future behavior of another animal. Of course, human communication can be subsumed as a highly developed form of animal communication. The study of animal communication, calledzoosemiotics' (distinguishable from anthroposemiotics, the study of human communication) has played an important part in the development of ethology, sociobiology, and the study of animal cognition. This is quite evident as humans are able to communicate with animals, especially dolphins and other animals used in circuses. However, these animals have to learn a special means of communication. Animal communication, and indeed the understanding of the animal world in general, is a rapidly growing field, and even in the 21st century so far, many prior understandings related to diverse fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, animal culture and learning, and even sexual conduct, long thought to be well understood, have beenrevolutionized.
[edit]Plants and fungi
Among plants, communication is observed within the plant organism, i.e. within plant cells and between plant cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plants and non-plant organisms, especially in the root zone.Plant roots communicate in parallel with rhizome bacteria, with fungi and with insects in the soil. This parallel sign-mediated interactions which are governed by syntactic, pragmatic and semantic rules are possible because of the decentralized "nervous system" of plants. The original meaning of the word "neuron" in Greek is "vegetable fiber" and as recent research shows, most of the intraorganismic plant communication processes are neuronal-like.[15] Plants also communicate via volatiles in the case of herbivoryattack behavior to warn neighboring plants. In parallel they produce other volatiles which attract parasites which attack these herbivores. In Stress situations plants can overwrite the genetic code they inherited from their parents and revert to that of their grand- or great-grandparents.[16]
 | This article may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards, as section. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (February 2010) |
Fungi communicate to coordinate and organize their own growth and development such as the formation of mycelia and fruiting bodies. Additionally fungi communicate with same and related species as well as with nonfungal organisms in a great variety of symbiotic interactions, especially with bacteria, unicellular eukaryotes, plants and insects. The used semiochemicals are of biotic origin and they trigger the fungal organism to react in a specific manner, in difference while to even the same chemical molecules are not being a part of biotic messages doesn’t trigger to react the fungal organism. It means, fungal organisms are competent to identify the difference of the same molecules being part of biotic messages or lack of these features. So far five different primary signalling molecules are known that serve to coordinate very different behavioral patterns such as filamentation, mating, growth,pathogenicity. Behavioral coordination and the production of such substances can only be achieved through interpretation processes: self or non-self, abiotic indicator, biotic message from similar, related, or non-related species, or even “noise”, i.e., similar molecules without biotic content-[17]
[edit]Communication as academic discipline
Main article: Communication theory
Communication as an academic discipline, sometimes called "communicology,"[18] relates to all the ways we communicate, so it embraces a large body of study and knowledge. The communication discipline includes both verbal and nonverbal messages. A body of scholarship all about communication is presented and explained in textbooks, electronic publications, and academic journals. In the journals, researchers report the results of studies that are the basis for an ever-expanding understanding of how we all communicate.
Communication happens at many levels (even for one single action), in many different ways, and for most beings, as well as certain machines. Several, if not all, fields of study dedicate a portion of attention to communication, so when speaking about communication it is very important to be sure about what aspects of communication one is speaking about. Definitions of communication range widely, some recognizing that animals can communicate with each other as well as human beings, and some are more narrow, only including human beings within the different parameters of human symbolic interaction.
[edit]See also
Notes
- ^ "communication". office of superintendent of Public Instruction. Washington. Retrieved March 14, 2008.
- ^ Montana, Patrick J. & Charnov, Bruce H. 2008. Management. 4th ed. New York. Barron's Educational Series, Inc. Pg 333.
- ^ Warwick, K, Gasson, M, Hutt, B, Goodhew, I, Kyberd, P, Schulzrinne, H and Wu, X: “Thought Communication and Control: A First Step using Radiotelegraphy”, IEE Proceedings on Communications, 151(3), pp.185-189, 2004
- ^ Wrench, J. S., McCroskey, J. C., & Richmond, V. P. (2008). Human communication in everyday life: Explanations and applications. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
- ^ Mehrabian, Albert (1971). Silent Messages (1st ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
- ^ Debunking the 55%, 38%, 7% Rule, by Judith E. Pearson
- ^ Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana, Illinois:University of Illinois Press
- ^ Berlo, D. K. (1960). The process of communication. New York, New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
- ^ Schramm, W. (1954). How communication works. In W. Schramm (Ed.), The process and effects of communication (pp. 3-26). Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press.
- ^ Barnlund, D. C. (2008). A transactional model of communication. In. C. D. Mortensen (Eds.),Communication theory (2nd ed., pp47-57). New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction.
- ^ Roy M. Berko, et al., Communicating. 11th ed. (Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc., 2010) 9-12
- ^ Witzany G. (2010) Biocommunication and Natural Genome Editing. Springer Verlag
- ^ Witzany G, Madl P. (2009). Biocommunication of corals. International Journal of Integrative Biology 5(3): 152-163.
- ^ Witzany G (2008). Bio-Communication of Bacteria and their Evolutionary Roots in Natural Genome Editing Competences of Viruses. Open Evolution Journal 2: 44-54.
- ^ Baluska, F.; Marcuso, Stefano; Volkmann, Dieter (2006). Communication in plants: neuronal aspects of plant life. Taylor & Francis US. p. 19. ISBN 3540284758. "...the emergence of plant neurobiology as the most recent area of plant sciences."
- ^ Witzany, G. (2006). Plant Communication from Biosemiotic Perspective. Plant Signaling and Behavior 1(4): 169-178.
- ^ Witzany, G. (2007). Applied Biosemiotics: Fungal Communication. In: Witzany, G. (Ed). Biosemiotics in Transdisciplinary Contexts. Helsinki, Umweb, pp. 295-301.
- ^ Communicology.org
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